Auxiliary type used to represent syntax categories. We mainly use auxiliary definitions with this type to attach doc strings to syntax categories.
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command is the syntax category for things that appear at the top level
of a lean file. For example, def foo := 1 is a command, as is
namespace Foo and end Foo. Commands generally have an effect on the state of
adding something to the environment (like a new definition), as well as
commands like variable which modify future commands within a scope.
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term is the builtin syntax category for terms. A term denotes an expression
in lean's type theory, for example 2 + 2 is a term. The difference between
Term and Expr is that the former is a kind of syntax, while the latter is
the result of elaboration. For example by simp is also a Term, but it elaborates
to different Exprs depending on the context.
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tactic is the builtin syntax category for tactics. These appear after
by in proofs, and they are programs that take in the proof context
(the hypotheses in scope plus the type of the term to synthesize) and construct
a term of the expected type. For example, simp is a tactic, used in:
example : 2 + 2 = 4 := by simp
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level is a builtin syntax category for universe levels.
This is the u in Sort u: it can contain max and imax, addition with
constants, and variables.
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attr is a builtin syntax category for attributes.
Declarations can be annotated with attributes using the @[...] notation.
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stx is a builtin syntax category for syntax. This is the abbreviated
parser notation used inside syntax and macro declarations.
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prio is a builtin syntax category for priorities.
Priorities are used in many different attributes.
Higher numbers denote higher priority, and for example typeclass search will
try high priority instances before low priority.
In addition to literals like 37, you can also use low, mid, high, as well as
add and subtract priorities.
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prec is a builtin syntax category for precedences. A precedence is a value
that expresses how tightly a piece of syntax binds: for example 1 + 2 * 3 is
parsed as 1 + (2 * 3) because * has a higher pr0ecedence than +.
Higher numbers denote higher precedence.
In addition to literals like 37, there are some special named priorities:
argfor the precedence of function argumentsmaxfor the highest precedence used in term parsers (not actually the maximum possible value)leadfor the precedence of terms not supposed to be used as arguments and you can also add and subtract precedences.
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DSL for specifying parser precedences and priorities
Addition of precedences. This is normally used only for offseting, e.g. max + 1.
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Subtraction of precedences. This is normally used only for offseting, e.g. max - 1.
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Addition of priorities. This is normally used only for offseting, e.g. default + 1.
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Subtraction of priorities. This is normally used only for offseting, e.g. default - 1.
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Maximum precedence used in term parsers, in particular for terms in
function position (ident, paren, ...)
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Precedence used for application arguments (do, by, ...).
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Precedence used for terms not supposed to be used as arguments (let, have, ...).
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Parentheses are used for grouping precedence expressions.
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max:prec as a term. It is equivalent to eval_prec max for eval_prec defined at Meta.lean.
We use max_prec to workaround bootstrapping issues.
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The default priority default = 1000, which is used when no priority is set.
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The standardized "low" priority low = 100, for things that should be lower than default priority.
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The standardized "medium" priority mid = 500. This is lower than default, and higher than low.
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The standardized "high" priority high = 10000, for things that should be higher than default priority.
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Parentheses are used for grouping priority expressions.
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p+ is shorthand for many1(p). It uses parser p 1 or more times, and produces a
nullNode containing the array of parsed results. This parser has arity 1.
If p has arity more than 1, it is auto-grouped in the items generated by the parser.
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p* is shorthand for many(p). It uses parser p 0 or more times, and produces a
nullNode containing the array of parsed results. This parser has arity 1.
If p has arity more than 1, it is auto-grouped in the items generated by the parser.
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(p)? is shorthand for optional(p). It uses parser p 0 or 1 times, and produces a
nullNode containing the array of parsed results. This parser has arity 1.
p is allowed to have arity n > 1 (in which case the node will have either 0 or n children),
but if it has arity 0 then the result will be ambiguous.
Because ? is an identifier character, ident? will not work as intended.
You have to write either ident ? or (ident)? for it to parse as the ? combinator
applied to the ident parser.
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p1 <|> p2 is shorthand for orelse(p1, p2), and parses either p1 or p2.
It does not backtrack, meaning that if p1 consumes at least one token then
p2 will not be tried. Therefore, the parsers should all differ in their first
token. The atomic(p) parser combinator can be used to locally backtrack a parser.
(For full backtracking, consider using extensible syntax classes instead.)
On success, if the inner parser does not generate exactly one node, it will be
automatically wrapped in a group node, so the result will always be arity 1.
The <|> combinator does not generate a node of its own, and in particular
does not tag the inner parsers to distinguish them, which can present a problem
when reconstructing the parse. A well formed <|> parser should use disjoint
node kinds for p1 and p2.
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p,* is shorthand for sepBy(p, ","). It parses 0 or more occurrences of
p separated by ,, that is: empty | p | p,p | p,p,p | ....
It produces a nullNode containing a SepArray with the interleaved parser
results. It has arity 1, and auto-groups its component parser if needed.
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p,+ is shorthand for sepBy(p, ","). It parses 1 or more occurrences of
p separated by ,, that is: p | p,p | p,p,p | ....
It produces a nullNode containing a SepArray with the interleaved parser
results. It has arity 1, and auto-groups its component parser if needed.
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p,*,? is shorthand for sepBy(p, ",", allowTrailingSep).
It parses 0 or more occurrences of p separated by ,, possibly including
a trailing ,, that is: empty | p | p, | p,p | p,p, | p,p,p | ....
It produces a nullNode containing a SepArray with the interleaved parser
results. It has arity 1, and auto-groups its component parser if needed.
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p,+,? is shorthand for sepBy1(p, ",", allowTrailingSep).
It parses 1 or more occurrences of p separated by ,, possibly including
a trailing ,, that is: p | p, | p,p | p,p, | p,p,p | ....
It produces a nullNode containing a SepArray with the interleaved parser
results. It has arity 1, and auto-groups its component parser if needed.
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!p parses the negation of p. That is, it fails if p succeeds, and
otherwise parses nothing. It has arity 0.
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The nat_lit n macro constructs "raw numeric literals". This corresponds to the
Expr.lit (.natVal n) constructor in the Expr data type.
Normally, when you write a numeral like #check 37, the parser turns this into
an application of OfNat.ofNat to the raw literal 37 to cast it into the
target type, even if this type is Nat (so the cast is the identity function).
But sometimes it is necessary to talk about the raw numeral directly,
especially when proving properties about the ofNat function itself.
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Function composition is the act of pipelining the result of one function, to the input of another, creating an entirely new function. Example:
#eval Function.comp List.reverse (List.drop 2) [3, 2, 4, 1]
-- [1, 4]
You can use the notation f ∘ g as shorthand for Function.comp f g.
#eval (List.reverse ∘ List.drop 2) [3, 2, 4, 1]
-- [1, 4]
A simpler way of thinking about it, is that List.reverse ∘ List.drop 2
is equivalent to fun xs => List.reverse (List.drop 2 xs),
the benefit is that the meaning of composition is obvious,
and the representation is compact.
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Product type (aka pair). You can use α × β as notation for Prod α β.
Given a : α and b : β, Prod.mk a b : Prod α β. You can use (a, b)
as notation for Prod.mk a b. Moreover, (a, b, c) is notation for
Prod.mk a (Prod.mk b c).
Given p : Prod α β, p.1 : α and p.2 : β. They are short for Prod.fst p
and Prod.snd p respectively. You can also write p.fst and p.snd.
For more information: Constructors with Arguments
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a ||| b computes the bitwise OR of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a ^^^ b computes the bitwise XOR of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a &&& b computes the bitwise AND of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a + b computes the sum of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a - b computes the difference of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
- For natural numbers, this operator saturates at 0:
a - b = 0whena ≤ b.
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a * b computes the product of a and b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a / b computes the result of dividing a by b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
- For most types like
Nat,Int,Rat,Real,a / 0is defined to be0. - For
NatandInt,a / brounds toward 0. - For
Float,a / 0follows the IEEE 754 semantics for division, usually resulting ininfornan.
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a % b computes the remainder upon dividing a by b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a >>> b computes a shifted to the right by b places.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a ^ b computes a to the power of b.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a ++ b is the result of concatenation of a and b, usually read "append".
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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-a computes the negative or opposite of a.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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Remark: the infix commands above ensure a delaborator is generated for each relations.
We redefine the macros below to be able to use the auxiliary binop% elaboration helper for binary operators.
It addresses issue #382.
The equality relation. It has one introduction rule, Eq.refl.
We use a = b as notation for Eq a b.
A fundamental property of equality is that it is an equivalence relation.
variable (α : Type) (a b c d : α)
variable (hab : a = b) (hcb : c = b) (hcd : c = d)
example : a = d :=
Eq.trans (Eq.trans hab (Eq.symm hcb)) hcd
Equality is much more than an equivalence relation, however. It has the important property that every assertion
respects the equivalence, in the sense that we can substitute equal expressions without changing the truth value.
That is, given h1 : a = b and h2 : p a, we can construct a proof for p b using substitution: Eq.subst h1 h2.
Example:
example (α : Type) (a b : α) (p : α → Prop)
(h1 : a = b) (h2 : p a) : p b :=
Eq.subst h1 h2
example (α : Type) (a b : α) (p : α → Prop)
(h1 : a = b) (h2 : p a) : p b :=
h1 ▸ h2
The triangle in the second presentation is a macro built on top of Eq.subst and Eq.symm, and you can enter it by typing \t.
For more information: Equality
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Remark: the infix commands above ensure a delaborator is generated for each relations.
We redefine the macros below to be able to use the auxiliary binrel% elaboration helper for binary relations.
It has better support for applying coercions. For example, suppose we have binrel% Eq n i where n : Nat and
i : Int. The default elaborator fails because we don't have a coercion from Int to Nat, but
binrel% succeeds because it also tries a coercion from Nat to Int even when the nat occurs before the int.
And a b, or a ∧ b, is the conjunction of propositions. It can be
constructed and destructed like a pair: if ha : a and hb : b then
⟨ha, hb⟩ : a ∧ b, and if h : a ∧ b then h.left : a and h.right : b.
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And a b, or a ∧ b, is the conjunction of propositions. It can be
constructed and destructed like a pair: if ha : a and hb : b then
⟨ha, hb⟩ : a ∧ b, and if h : a ∧ b then h.left : a and h.right : b.
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Not p, or ¬p, is the negation of p. It is defined to be p → False,
so if your goal is ¬p you can use intro h to turn the goal into
h : p ⊢ False, and if you have hn : ¬p and h : p then hn h : False
and (hn h).elim will prove anything.
For more information: Propositional Logic
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The membership relation a ∈ s : Prop where a : α, s : γ.
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a ∉ b is negated elementhood. It is notation for ¬ (a ∈ b).
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If a : α and l : List α, then cons a l, or a :: l, is the
list whose first element is a and with l as the rest of the list.
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a <|> b executes a and returns the result, unless it fails in which
case it executes and returns b. Because b is not always executed, it
is passed as a thunk so it can be forced only when needed.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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a >> b executes a, ignores the result, and then executes b.
If a fails then b is not executed. Because b is not always executed, it
is passed as a thunk so it can be forced only when needed.
The meaning of this notation is type-dependent.
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If x : m α and f : α → m β, then x >>= f : m β represents the
result of executing x to get a value of type α and then passing it to f.
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If mf : F (α → β) and mx : F α, then mf <*> mx : F β.
In a monad this is the same as do let f ← mf; x ← mx; pure (f x):
it evaluates first the function, then the argument, and applies one to the other.
To avoid surprising evaluation semantics, mx is taken "lazily", using a
Unit → f α function.
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If x : F α and y : F β, then x <* y evaluates x, then y,
and returns the result of x.
To avoid surprising evaluation semantics, y is taken "lazily", using a
Unit → f β function.
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If x : F α and y : F β, then x *> y evaluates x, then y,
and returns the result of y.
To avoid surprising evaluation semantics, y is taken "lazily", using a
Unit → f β function.
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If f : α → β and x : F α then f <$> x : F β.
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binderIdent matches an ident or a _. It is used for identifiers in binding
position, where _ means that the value should be left unnamed and inaccessible.
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A case tag argument has the form tag x₁ ... xₙ; it refers to tag tag and renames
the last n hypotheses to x₁ ... xₙ.
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"Dependent" if-then-else, normally written via the notation if h : c then t(h) else e(h),
is sugar for dite c (fun h => t(h)) (fun h => e(h)), and it is the same as
if c then t else e except that t is allowed to depend on a proof h : c,
and e can depend on h : ¬c. (Both branches use the same name for the hypothesis,
even though it has different types in the two cases.)
We use this to be able to communicate the if-then-else condition to the branches.
For example, Array.get arr ⟨i, h⟩ expects a proof h : i < arr.size in order to
avoid a bounds check, so you can write if h : i < arr.size then arr.get ⟨i, h⟩ else ...
to avoid the bounds check inside the if branch. (Of course in this case we have only
lifted the check into an explicit if, but we could also use this proof multiple times
or derive i < arr.size from some other proposition that we are checking in the if.)
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if c then t else e is notation for ite c t e, "if-then-else", which decides to
return t or e depending on whether c is true or false. The explicit argument
c : Prop does not have any actual computational content, but there is an additional
[Decidable c] argument synthesized by typeclass inference which actually
determines how to evaluate c to true or false.
Because lean uses a strict (call-by-value) evaluation strategy, the signature of this
function is problematic in that it would require t and e to be evaluated before
calling the ite function, which would cause both sides of the if to be evaluated.
Even if the result is discarded, this would be a big performance problem,
and is undesirable for users in any case. To resolve this, ite is marked as
@[macro_inline], which means that it is unfolded during code generation, and
the definition of the function uses fun _ => t and fun _ => e so this recovers
the expected "lazy" behavior of if: the t and e arguments delay evaluation
until c is known.
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if let pat := d then t else e is a shorthand syntax for:
match d with
| pat => t
| _ => e
It matches d against the pattern pat and the bindings are available in t.
If the pattern does not match, it returns e instead.
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Haskell-like pipe operator <|. f <| x means the same as the same as f x,
except that it parses x with lower precedence, which means that f <| g <| x
is interpreted as f (g x) rather than (f g) x.
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Haskell-like pipe operator |>. x |> f means the same as the same as f x,
and it chains such that x |> f |> g is interpreted as g (f x).
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Alternative syntax for <|. f $ x means the same as the same as f x,
except that it parses x with lower precedence, which means that f $ g $ x
is interpreted as f (g x) rather than (f g) x.
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Subtype p, usually written as {x : α // p x}, is a type which
represents all the elements x : α for which p x is true. It is structurally
a pair-like type, so if you have x : α and h : p x then
⟨x, h⟩ : {x // p x}. An element s : {x // p x} will coerce to α but
you can also make it explicit using s.1 or s.val.
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without_expected_type t instructs Lean to elaborate t without an expected type.
Recall that terms such as match ... with ... and ⟨...⟩ will postpone elaboration until
expected type is known. So, without_expected_type is not effective in this case.
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The syntax [a, b, c] is shorthand for a :: b :: c :: [], or
List.cons a (List.cons b (List.cons c List.nil)). It allows conveniently constructing
list literals.
For lists of length at least 64, an alternative desugaring strategy is used
which uses let bindings as intermediates as in
let left := [d, e, f]; a :: b :: c :: left to avoid creating very deep expressions.
Note that this changes the order of evaluation, although it should not be observable
unless you use side effecting operations like dbg_trace.
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Auxiliary syntax for implementing [$elem,*] list literal syntax.
The syntax %[a,b,c|tail] constructs a value equivalent to a::b::c::tail.
It uses binary partitioning to construct a tree of intermediate let bindings as in
let left := [d, e, f]; a :: b :: c :: left to avoid creating very deep expressions.
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Category for carrying raw syntax trees between macros; any content is printed as is by the pretty printer. The only accepted parser for this category is an antiquotation.
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The attribute @[deprecated] on a declaration indicates that the declaration
is discouraged for use in new code, and/or should be migrated away from in
existing code. It may be removed in a future version of the library.
@[deprecated myBetterDef] means that myBetterDef is the suggested replacement.
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When parent_dir contains the current Lean file, include_str "path" / "to" / "file" becomes
a string literal with the contents of the file at "parent_dir" / "path" / "to" / "file". If this
file cannot be read, elaboration fails.